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13 // contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived
20 // OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL,
1128 "During the fifteenth century, Middle English was transformed by the Great Vowel Shift, the spread of a prestigious South Eastern-based dialect in the court, administration and academic life, and the standardising effect of printing. Early Modern English can be traced back to around the Elizabethan period.\n" +
1169 "English is the language most often studied as a foreign language in the European Union (by 89% of schoolchildren), followed by French (32%), German (18%), and Spanish (8%).[28] In the EU, a large fraction of the population reports being able to converse to some extent in English. Among non-English speaking countries, a large percentage of the population claimed to be able to converse in English in the Netherlands (87%), Sweden (85%), Denmark (83%), Luxembourg (66%), Finland (60%), Slovenia (56%), Austria (53%), Belgium (52%), and Germany (51%). [29] Norway and Iceland also have a large majority of competent English-speakers.\n" +
1179 "The major varieties of English include, in most cases, several subvarieties, such as Cockney slang within British English; Newfoundland English within Canadian English; and African American Vernacular English (\"Ebonics\") and Southern American English within American English. English is a pluricentric language, without a central language authority like France's Académie française; and, although no variety is clearly considered the only standard, there are a number of accents considered to be more prestigious, such as Received Pronunciation in Britain.\n" +
1194 " * Manually Coded English ? a variety of systems have been developed to represent the English language with hand signals, designed primarily for use in deaf education. These should not be confused with true sign languages such as British Sign Language and American Sign Language used in Anglophone countries, which are independent and not based on English.\n" +
1195 " * E-Prime excludes forms of the verb to be.\n" +
1248 " 8. Vowel length plays a phonetic role in the majority of English dialects, and is said to be phonemic in a few dialects, such as Australian English and New Zealand English. In certain dialects of the modern English language, for instance General American, there is allophonic vowel length: vowel phonemes are realized as long vowel allophones before voiced consonant phonemes in the coda of a syllable. Before the Great Vowel Shift, vowel length was phonemically contrastive.\n" +
1249 " 9. This sound only occurs in non-rhotic accents. In some accents, this sound may be, instead of /??/, /?:/. See pour-poor merger.\n" +
1250 " 10. This sound only occurs in non-rhotic accents. In some accents, the schwa offglide of /??/ may be dropped, monophthising and lengthening the sound to /?:/.\n" +
1277 " 6. The voiceless velar fricative /x/ is used only by Scottish or Welsh speakers of English for Scots/Gaelic words such as loch /l?x/ or by some speakers for loanwords from German and Hebrew like Bach /bax/ or Chanukah /xanuka/. In some dialects such as Scouse (Liverpool) either [x] or the affricate [kx] may be used as an allophone of /k/ in words such as docker [d?kx?]. Most native speakers have a great deal of trouble pronouncing it correctly when learning a foreign language. Most speakers use the sounds [k] and [h] instead.\n" +
1282 "Voicing and aspiration of stop consonants in English depend on dialect and context, but a few general rules can be given:\n" +
1287 " * Word-initial voiced plosives may be devoiced in some dialects.\n" +
1288 " * Word-terminal voiceless plosives may be unreleased or accompanied by a glottal stop in some dialects (e.g. many varieties of American English) ? examples: tap [t?æp?], sack [sæk?].\n" +
1289 " * Word-terminal voiced plosives may be devoiced in some dialects (e.g. some varieties of American English) ? examples: sad [sæd?], bag [bæ??]. In other dialects they are fully voiced in final position, but only partially voiced in initial position.\n" +
1305 "English is a strongly stressed language, in that certain syllables, both within words and within phrases, get a relative prominence/loudness during pronunciation while the others do not. The former kind of syllables are said to be accentuated/stressed and the latter are unaccentuated/unstressed. All good dictionaries of English mark the accentuated syllable(s) by either placing an apostrophe-like ( ? ) sign either before (as in IPA, Oxford English Dictionary, or Merriam-Webster dictionaries) or after (as in many other dictionaries) the syllable where the stress accent falls. In general, for a two-syllable word in English, it can be
1307 "Hence in a sentence, each tone group can be subdivided into syllables, which can either be stressed (strong) or unstressed (weak). The stressed syllable is called the nuclear syllable. For example:\n" +
1329 "This can also be used to express emotion:\n" +
1336 " When do you want to be paid?\n" +
1337 " Now? (Rising pitch. In this case, it denotes a question: \"Can I be paid now?\" or \"Do you desire to be paid now?\")\n" +
1338 " Now. (Falling pitch. In this case, it denotes a statement: \"I choose to be paid now.\")\n" +
1352 "Germanic words (generally words of Old English or to a lesser extent Norse origin) which include all the basics such as pronouns (I, my, you, it) and conjunctions (and, or, but) tend to be shorter than the Latinate words of English, and more common in ordinary speech. The longer Latinate words are often regarded as more elegant or educated. However, the excessive or superfluous use of Latinate words is considered at times to be either pretentious (as in the stereotypical policeman's talk of \"apprehending the suspect\") or an attempt to obfuscate an issue. George Orwell's essay \"Politics and the English Language\" is critical of this, as well as other perceived abuses of the language.\n" +
1356 "An exception to this and a peculiarity perhaps unique to English is that the nouns for meats are commonly different from, and unrelated to, those for the animals from which they are produced, the animal commonly having a Germanic name and the meat having a French-derived one. Examples include: deer and venison; cow and beef; swine/pig and pork, or sheep and mutton. This is assumed to be a result of the aftermath of the Norman invasion, where a French-speaking elite were the consumers of the meat, produced by English-speaking lower classes.\n" +
1358 "In everyday speech, the majority of words will normally be Germanic. If a speaker wishes to make a forceful point in an argument in a very blunt way, Germanic words will usually be chosen. A majority of Latinate words (or at least a majority of content words) will normally be used in more formal speech and writing, such as a courtroom or an encyclopedia article. However, there are other Latinate words that are used normally in everyday speech and do not sound formal; these are mainly words for concepts that no longer have Germanic words, and are generally assimilated better and in many cases do not appear Latinate. For instance, the words mountain, valley, river, aunt, uncle, move, use, push and stay are all Latinate.\n" +
1360 "English is noted for the vast size of its active vocabulary and its fluidity.[citation needed][weasel words] English easily accepts technical terms into common usage and imports new words and phrases that often come into common usage. Examples of this phenomenon include: cookie, Internet and URL (technical terms), as well as genre, über, lingua franca and amigo (imported words/phrases from French, German, modern Latin, and Spanish, respectively). In addition, slang often provides new meanings for old words and phrases. In fact, this fluidity is so pronounced that a distinction often needs to be made between formal forms of English and contemporary usage. See also: sociolinguistics.\n" +
1368 "The vocabulary of English is undoubtedly vast, but assigning a specific number to its size is more a matter of definition than of calculation. Unlike other languages, there is no Academy to define officially accepted words. Neologisms are coined regularly in medicine, science and technology and other fields, and new slang is constantly developed. Some of these new words enter wide usage; others remain restricted to small circles. Foreign words used in immigrant communities often make their way into wider English usage. Archaic, dialectal, and regional words might or might not be widely considered as \"English\".\n" +
1374 "The editors of Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged (475,000 main headwords) in their preface, estimate the number to be much higher. It is estimated that about 25,000 words are added to the language each year.[33]\n" +
3204 " Note: There may be an updated version of this malloc obtainable at\n" +
3248 " You may already by default be using a C library containing a malloc\n" +
3279 " Note that size_t is allowed to be 4 bytes even if pointers are 8.\n" +
3285 " define MALLOC_ALIGNMENT to be wider than this if necessary.\n" +
3315 " that `size_t' may be defined on a system as either a signed or\n" +
3316 " an unsigned type. The ISO C standard says that it must be\n" +
3320 " arguments, and may not be able to handle size_t-wide arguments\n" +
3335 " especially fast, and can be a major bottleneck.\n" +
3339 " you would be far better off obtaining ptmalloc, which is\n" +
3359 " at all modular. (Sorry!) It uses a lot of macros. To be at all\n" +
3360 " usable, this code should be compiled using an optimizing compiler\n" +
3447 " // free will be scheduled on the main thread in that case.\n" +
3512 " __STD_C should be nonzero if using ANSI-standard C compiler, a C++\n" +
3564 " Because freed chunks may be overwritten with bookkeeping fields, this\n" +
3566 " programs. This can be very effective (albeit in an annoying way)\n" +
3570 " enabled that will catch more memory errors. You probably won't be\n" +
3577 " cannot be checked very much automatically.)\n" +
3579 " Setting DEBUG may also be helpful if you are trying to modify\n" +
3591 " This should be at least as wide as size_t, but should not be signed.\n" +
3618 " On a 64-bit machine, you may be able to reduce malloc overhead by\n" +
3619 " defining INTERNAL_SIZE_T to be a 32 bit `unsigned int' at the\n" +
3627 " - INTERNAL_SIZE_T might be signed or unsigned, might be 32 or 64 bits,\n" +
3628 " and might be the same width as int or as long\n" +
3630 " - int and long might be 32 or 64 bits, and might be the same width\n" +
3650 " It must be a power of two at least 2 * SIZE_SZ, even on machines\n" +
3651 " for which smaller alignments would suffice. It may be defined as\n" +
3667 " REALLOC_ZERO_BYTES_FREES should be set if a call to\n" +
3668 " realloc with zero bytes should be the same as a call to free.\n" +
3709 " USE_MALLOC_LOCK forces USE_PUBLIC_MALLOC_WRAPPERS to be defined\n" +
3794 " HAVE_MEMCPY should be defined if you are not otherwise using\n" +
3799 (" USE_MEMCPY should be defined as 1 if you actually want to\n" +
3839 " malloc fails to be able to return memory, either because memory is\n" +
3883 " as well as mmap. Since it cannot be an otherwise valid memory address,\n" +
3896 " if not defined, when regions happen to be contiguous, malloc will\n" +
3918 be returned to the\n" +
3925 " or so) may be slower than you'd like.\n" +
3952 " HAVE_MMAP). The value must be a multiple of page size. This\n" +
3956 " this is known to be useful (i.e. most linux kernels), this occurs\n" +
3958 " and the fact that mmap regions tend to be limited, the size should\n" +
3959 " be large, to avoid too many mmap calls and thus avoid running out\n" +
3991 " 4096 is used, which should be OK: If they don't apply, then using\n" +
4060 " other numbers that might be of interest.\n" +
4062 " HAVE_USR_INCLUDE_MALLOC_H should be set if you have a\n" +
4065 " version is declared below. These must be precisely the same for\n" +
4161 " The returned pointer may or may not be the same as p. The algorithm\n" +
4176 " be reallocated using malloc-copy-free sequences unless\n" +
4180 " to be used as an argument to realloc is not supported.\n" +
4193 " The alignment argument should be a power of two. If the argument is\n" +
4257 " usmblks: the maximum total allocated space. This will be greater\n" +
4262 " keepcost: the maximum number of bytes that could ideally be released\n" +
4267 " be kept as longs, the reported values may wrap around zero and\n" +
4268 " thus be inaccurate.\n" +
4282 " of which starts out cleared, and can be independently freed,\n" +
4283 " realloc'ed etc. The elements are guaranteed to be adjacently\n" +
4288 " The \"chunks\" argument is optional (i.e., may be null, which is\n" +
4290 " is itself dynamically allocated and should also be freed when it is\n" +
4291 " no longer needed. Otherwise, the chunks array must be of at least\n" +
4298 " (which should be freed if not wanted).\n" +
4300 " Each element must be individually freed when it is no longer\n" +
4301 " needed. If you'd like to instead be able to free all at once, you\n" +
4307 " kinds of pools. It may also be useful when constructing large data\n" +
4310 " may later need to be freed. For example:\n" +
4339 " an array of pointers to these elements, each of which can be\n" +
4341 " be adjacently allocated (this is not guaranteed to occur with\n" +
4345 " The \"chunks\" argument is optional (i.e., may be null). If it is null\n" +
4347 " be freed when it is no longer needed. Otherwise, the chunks array\n" +
4348 " must be of at least n_elements in length. It is filled in with the\n" +
4354 " (which should be freed if not wanted).\n" +
4356 " Each element must be individually freed when it is no longer\n" +
4357 " needed. If you'd like to instead be able to free all at once, you\n" +
4366 " independent_comalloc can be used to speed up allocation in cases\n" +
4367 " where several structs or objects must always be allocated at the\n" +
4391 " might be available for some of the elements.\n" +
4433 " some allocation patterns, some large free blocks of memory will be\n" +
4434 " locked between two used chunks, so they cannot be given back to\n" +
4440 " structures will be left (one page or less). Non-zero arguments\n" +
4441 " can be supplied to maintain enough trailing space to service\n" +
4459 " an allocated chunk, which may be more than you requested (although\n" +
4463 " programming practice. malloc_usable_size can be more useful in\n" +
4479 " via sbrk and mmap), the maximum amount (which may be more than\n" +
4483 " number requested. It will be larger than the number requested\n" +
4485 " alignment wastage as being in use, this figure may be greater than\n" +
4488 " The reported current and maximum system memory can be inaccurate if\n" +
4493 " More information can be obtained by calling mallinfo.\n" +
4507 " enables future requests for chunks of the same size to be handled\n" +
4524 " algorithm to be a closer approximation of fifo-best-fit in all cases,\n" +
4525 " not just for larger requests, but will generally cause it to be\n" +
4545 " Because trimming via sbrk can be slow on some systems, and can\n" +
4546 " sometimes be wasteful (in cases where programs immediately\n" +
4547 " afterward allocate more large chunks) the value should be high\n" +
4552 " can be traded off with one another. Trimming and mmapping are\n" +
4581 " The trim value must be greater than page size to have any useful\n" +
4597 " since that memory will immediately be returned to the system.\n" +
4642 " be allocated using already-existing space will be serviced via mmap.\n" +
4646 " they can be individually obtained and released from the host\n" +
4653 " 1. Mmapped space can ALWAYS be individually released back\n" +
4664 " 1. The space cannot be reclaimed, consolidated, and then\n" +
4668 " 3. It causes malloc performance to be more dependent on host\n" +
4759 " MALLOC_PREACTION and MALLOC_POSTACTION should be\n" +
5085 " so the following is unlikely to be needed, but is\n" +
5182 " | Unused space (may be 0 bytes long) .\n" +
5193 " size, and can be used to find the front of the previous chunk.\n" +
5202 " deal with alignments etc but can be very confusing when trying\n" +
5289 " macros for which mmapped chunks should never be seen. This should\n" +
5365 " they can be found quickly. All procedures maintain the invariant\n" +
5367 " chunk in a list is known to be preceeded and followed by either\n" +
5381 " to give each chunk an equal opportunity to be consolidated with\n" +
5441 " Compute index for size. We expect this to be inlined when\n" +
5487 " be the smallest size corresponding to a given bin.\n" +
5489 " Normally, this should be MIN_LARGE_SIZE. But you can weaken\n" +
5511 " in regular bins after malloc gives them ONE chance to be used before\n" +
5514 " and taken off (to be either used or placed in bins) in malloc.\n" +
5535 " the 2 preceding words to be zero during this interval as well.)\n" +
5538 "/* Conveniently, the unsorted bin can be used as dummy top on first call */\n" +
5547 " be skipped over during during traversals. The bits are NOT always\n" +
5549 " when they are noticed to be empty during traversal in malloc.\n" +
5576 " be consolidated with other free chunks. malloc_consolidate\n" +
5611 " ANYCHUNKS_BIT held in max_fast indicates that there may be any\n" +
5671 " /* The maximum chunk size to be eligible for fastbin */\n" +
5739 " be called in the same contexts anyway. It is never called directly\n" +
5741 " to inline it at all call points, which turns out not to be an\n" +
5801 " of data structures that should be true at all times. If any\n" +
5891 " /* Chunk must claim to be free ... */\n" +
5931 " /* Check whether it claims to be in use ... */\n" +
5938 " Since more things can be checked with free chunks than inuse ones,\n" +
6010 " This may be useful for debugging malloc, as well as detecting user\n" +
6032 " /* internal size_t must be no wider than pointer type */\n" +
6060 " /* each chunk claims to be inuse */\n" +
6090 " /* each chunk claims to be free */\n" +
6141 " be extended or replaced.\n" +
6204 " is no following chunk whose prev_size field could be used.\n" +
6219 " and in memalign(), and still be able to compute proper\n" +
6266 " If not the first time through, we require old_size to be\n" +
6315 " cannot be used. This is worth doing on systems that have \"holes\" in\n" +
6318 " and threshold limits, since the space will not be used as a\n" +
6376 " request size to account for fact that we will not be able to\n" +
6423 " They will never be accessed anyway because\n" +
6434 " be able to merge with old_top space, so must add to 2nd request.\n" +
6449 " brk. It might be enough to proceed without failing.\n" +
6840 " find one that fits. (This will be the smallest that fits unless\n" +
6842 " the only step where an unbounded number of chunks might be\n" +
6844 " lists tend to be short.\n" +
6907 " /* Advance to bin with set bit. There must be one. */\n" +
6914 " /* Inspect the bin. It is likely to be non-empty */\n" +
6969 " be extended to be as large as necessary (up to system\n" +
6973 " MINSIZE) after initialization, so if it would otherwise be\n" +
7030 " If eligible, place chunk on a fastbin so it can be found\n" +
7083 " been given one chance to be used in malloc.\n" +
7163 " down chunks held in fastbins. Free itself cannot be used for this\n" +
7168 " Also, because this routine needs to be called the first time through\n" +
7169 " malloc anyway, it turns out to be the perfect place to trigger\n" +
7209 " until malloc is sure that chunks aren't immediately going to be\n" +
7315 " /* realloc of null is supposed to be same as malloc */\n" +
7699 " /* opts arg of 3 means all elements are same size, and should be cleared */\n" +
7724 " bit 1 set if elements should be zeroed\n" +
7787 " we would not be able to later free/realloc space internal\n" +
8096 " only be called with arguments that are multiples of pagesize.\n" +
8124 " addresses, it must be OK for malloc'ed chunks to span multiple\n" +
8125 " regions in those cases where they do happen to be contiguous.\n" +
8136 " actually be size_t, because sbrk supports negative args, so it is\n" +
8146 " expand the heap, but mmap may be able to map noncontiguous space.\n" +
8148 " If you'd like mmap to ALWAYS be used, you can define MORECORE to be\n" +
8155 " that cannot be detected as such, and subsequent corruption.\n" +
8169 " There is also a shutdown routine that should somehow be called for\n" +
8192 " // save ptrs so they can be freed during cleanup\n" +
