Lines Matching refs:Of
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26 // OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
33 // following piece of perl-based line noise:
816 "Flag of ???? Coat of arms of ????\n" +
926 "???????????? ???? ?? ???? ??? ????? ?? ??? ??? - ??????? ????????, or Council of States,?? ???????? ??????. ???????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ???????? ?? ??????? ?? ?????, ?????????? ???? ?? ? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ??, ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ????????? ???? ??, ? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ????\n" +
1051 " Editing of this article by unregistered or newly registered users is currently disabled.\n" +
1069 "Official language of: 53 countries\n" +
1070 "Flag of the United Nations United Nations\n" +
1076 "World countries, states, and provinces where English is a primary language are dark blue; countries, states and provinces where it is an official but not a primary language are light blue. English is also one of the official languages of the European Union.\n" +
1079 "English is a West Germanic language originating in England, and the first language for most people in Australia, Canada, the Commonwealth Caribbean, Ireland, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States of America (also commonly known as the Anglosphere). It is used extensively as a second language and as an official language throughout the world, especially in Commonwealth countries such as India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and South Africa, and in many international organisations.\n" +
1081 "Modern English is sometimes described as the global lingua franca.[1][2] English is the dominant international language in communications, science, business, aviation, entertainment, radio and diplomacy.[3] The influence of the British Empire is the primary reason for the initial spread of the language far beyond the British Isles.[4] Following World War II, the growing economic and cultural influence of the United States has significantly accelerated the spread of the language.\n" +
1083 "A working knowledge of English is required in certain fields, professions, and occupations. As a result over a billion people speak English at least at a basic level (see English language learning and teaching). English is one of six official languages of the United Nations.\n" +
1092 " o 3.3 Constructed varieties of English\n" +
1100 " + 4.3.2 Characteristics of intonation\n" +
1103 " o 6.1 Number of words in English\n" +
1120 " Main article: History of the English language\n" +
1122 "English is an Anglo-Frisian language. Germanic-speaking peoples from northwest Germany (Saxons and Angles) and Jutland (Jutes) invaded what is now known as Eastern England around the fifth century AD. It is a matter of debate whether the Old English language spread by displacement of the original population, or the native Celts gradually adopted the language and culture of a new ruling class, or a combination of both of these processes (see Sub-Roman Britain).\n" +
1124 "Whatever their origin, these Germanic dialects eventually coalesced to a degree (there remained geographical variation) and formed what is today called Old English. Old English loosely resembles some coastal dialects in what are now northwest Germany and the Netherlands (i.e., Frisia). Throughout the history of written Old English, it retained a synthetic structure closer to that of Proto-Indo-European, largely adopting West Saxon scribal conventions, while spoken Old English became increasingly analytic in nature, losing the more complex noun case system, relying more heavily on prepositions and fixed word order to convey meaning. This is evident in the Middle English period, when literature was to an increasing extent recorded with spoken dialectal variation intact, after written Old English lost its status as the literary language of the nobility. It is postulated that the early development of the language was influenced by a Celtic substratum.[5][6] Later, it was influenced by the related North Germanic language Old Norse, spoken by the Vikings who settled mainly in the north and the east coast down to London, the area known as the Danelaw.\n" +
1126 "The Norman Conquest of England in 1066 profoundly influenced the evolution of the language. For about 300 years after this, the Normans used Anglo-Norman, which was close to Old French, as the language of the court, law and administration. By the fourteenth century, Anglo-Norman borrowings had contributed roughly 10,000 words to English, of which 75% remain in use. These include many words pertaining to the legal and administrative fields, but also include common words for food, such as mutton[7] and beef[8]. The Norman influence gave rise to what is now referred to as Middle English. Later, during the English Renaissance, many words were borrowed directly from Latin (giving rise to a number of doublets) and Greek, leaving a parallel vocabulary that persists into modern times. By the seventeenth century there was a reaction in some circles against so-called inkhorn terms.\n" +
1128 "During the fifteenth century, Middle English was transformed by the Great Vowel Shift, the spread of a prestigious South Eastern-based dialect in the court, administration and academic life, and the standardising effect of printing. Early Modern English can be traced back to around the Elizabethan period.\n" +
1132 "The English language belongs to the western sub-branch of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European family of languages.\n" +
1134 "The question as to which is the nearest living relative of English is a matter of discussion. Apart from such English-lexified creole languages such as Tok Pisin, Scots (spoken primarily in Scotland and parts of Northern Ireland) is not a Gaelic language, but is part of the English family of languages: both Scots and modern English are descended from Old English, also known as Anglo-Saxon. The closest relative to English after Scots is Frisian, which is spoken in the Northern Netherlands and Northwest Germany. Other less closely related living West Germanic languages include German, Low Saxon, Dutch, and Afrikaans. The North Germanic languages of Scandinavia are less closely related to English than the West Germanic languages.\n" +
1136 "Many French words are also intelligible to an English speaker (though pronunciations are often quite different) because English absorbed a large vocabulary from Norman and French, via Anglo-Norman after the Norman Conquest and directly from French in subsequent centuries. As a result, a large portion of English vocabulary is derived from French, with some minor spelling differences (word endings, use of old French spellings, etc.), as well as occasional divergences in meaning, in so-called \"faux amis\", or false friends.\n" +
1140 " See also: List of countries by English-speaking population\n" +
1142 "Over 380 million people speak English as their first language. English today is probably the third largest language by number of native speakers, after Mandarin Chinese and Spanish.[9][10] However, when combining native and non-native speakers it is probably the most commonly spoken language in the world, though possibly second to a combination of the Chinese Languages, depending on whether or not distinctions in the latter are classified as \"languages\" or \"dialects.\"[11][12] Estimates that include second language speakers vary greatly from 470 million to over a billion depending on how literacy or mastery is defined.[13][14] There are some who claim that non-native speakers now outnumber native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1.[15]\n" +
1144 "The countries with the highest populations of native English speakers are, in descending order: United States (215 million),[16] United Kingdom (58 million),[17] Canada (17.7 million),[18] Australia (15 million),[19] Ireland (3.8 million),[17] South Africa (3.7 million),[20] and New Zealand (3.0-3.7 million).[21] Countries such as Jamaica and Nigeria also have millions of native speakers of dialect continuums ranging from an English-based creole to a more standard version of English. Of those nations where English is spoken as a second language, India has the most such speakers ('Indian English') and linguistics professor David Crystal claims that, combining native and non-native speakers, India now has more people who speak or understand English than any other country in the world.[22] Following India is the People's Republic of China.[23]\n" +
1145 "Distribution of native English speakers by country (Crystal 1997)\n" +
1146 "Distribution of native English speakers by country (Crystal 1997)\n" +
1157 "English is the primary language in Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Australia (Australian English), the Bahamas, Barbados, Bermuda, Belize, the British Indian Ocean Territory, the British Virgin Islands, Canada (Canadian English), the Cayman Islands, Dominica, the Falkland Islands, Gibraltar, Grenada, Guernsey (Guernsey English), Guyana, Ireland (Hiberno-English), Isle of Man (Manx English), Jamaica (Jamaican English), Jersey, Montserrat, Nauru, New Zealand (New Zealand English), Pitcairn Islands, Saint Helena, Saint Lucia, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Singapore, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, Trinidad and Tobago, the Turks and Caicos Islands, the United Kingdom, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the United States (various forms of American English).\n" +
1159 "In many other countries, where English is not the most spoken language, it is an official language; these countries include Botswana, Cameroon, Fiji, the Federated States ofof the 11 official languages that are given equal status in South Africa (\"South African English\"). English is also an important language in several former colonies or current dependent territories of the United Kingdom and the United States, such as in Hong Kong and Mauritius.\n" +
1161 "English is not an official language in either the United States or the United Kingdom.[25][26] Although the United States federal government has no official languages, English has been given official status by 30 of the 50 state governments.[27]\n" +
1167 "Because English is so widely spoken, it has often been referred to as a \"global language\", the lingua franca of the modern era.[2] While English is not an official language in many countries, it is currently the language most often taught as a second language around the world. Some linguists believe that it is no longer the exclusive cultural sign of \"native English speakers\", but is rather a language that is absorbing aspects of cultures worldwide as it continues to grow. It is, by international treaty, the official language for aerial and maritime communications, as well as one of the official languages of the European Union, the United Nations, and most international athletic organisations, including the International Olympic Committee.\n" +
1169 "English is the language most often studied as a foreign language in the European Union (by 89% of schoolchildren), followed by French (32%), German (18%), and Spanish (8%).[28] In the EU, a large fraction of the population reports being able to converse to some extent in English. Among non-English speaking countries, a large percentage of the population claimed to be able to converse in English in the Netherlands (87%), Sweden (85%), Denmark (83%), Luxembourg (66%), Finland (60%), Slovenia (56%), Austria (53%), Belgium (52%), and Germany (51%). [29] Norway and Iceland also have a large majority of competent English-speakers.\n" +
1171 "Books, magazines, and newspapers written in English are available in many countries around the world. English is also the most commonly used language in the sciences.[2] In 1997, the Science Citation Index reported that 95% of its articles were written in English, even though only half of them came from authors in English-speaking countries.\n" +
1175 " Main article: List of dialects of the English language\n" +
1177 "The expansion of the British Empire and?since WWII?the primacy of the United States have spread English throughout the globe.[2] Because of that global spread, English has developed a host of English dialects and English-based creole languages and pidgins.\n" +
1179 "The major varieties of English include, in most cases, several subvarieties, such as Cockney slang within British English; Newfoundland English within Canadian English; and African American Vernacular English (\"Ebonics\") and Southern American English within American English. English is a pluricentric language, without a central language authority like France's Académie française; and, although no variety is clearly considered the only standard, there are a number of accents considered to be more prestigious, such as Received Pronunciation in Britain.\n" +
1181 "Scots developed ? largely independently ? from the same origins, but following the Acts of Union 1707 a process of language attrition began, whereby successive generations adopted more and more features from English causing dialectalisation. Whether it is now a separate language or a dialect of English better described as Scottish English is in dispute. The pronunciation, grammar and lexis of the traditional forms differ, sometimes substantially, from other varieties of English.\n" +
1183 "Because of the wide use of English as a second language, English speakers have many different accents, which often signal the speaker's native dialect or language. For the more distinctive characteristics of regional accents, see Regional accents of English speakers, and for the more distinctive characteristics of regional dialects, see List of dialects of the English language.\n" +
1185 "Just as English itself has borrowed words from many different languages over its history, English loanwords now appear in a great many languages around the world, indicative of the technological and cultural influence of its speakers. Several pidgins and creole languages have formed using an English base, such as Jamaican Creole, Nigerian Pidgin, and Tok Pisin. There are many words in English coined to describe forms of particular non-English languages that contain a very high proportion of English words. Franglais, for example, is used to describe French with a very high English word content; it is found on the Channel Islands. Another variant, spoken in the border bilingual regions of Québec in Canada, is called FrEnglish.\n" +
1187 "Constructed varieties of English\n" +
1189 " * Basic English is simplified for easy international use. It is used by manufacturers and other international businesses to write manuals and communicate. Some English schools in Asia teach it as a practical subset of English for use by beginners.\n" +
1190 " * Special English is a simplified version of English used by the Voice of America. It uses a vocabulary of only 1500 words.\n" +
1193 " * English as a lingua franca for Europe and Euro-English are concepts of standardising English for use as a second language in continental Europe.\n" +
1194 " * Manually Coded English ? a variety of systems have been developed to represent the English language with hand signals, designed primarily for use in deaf education. These should not be confused with true sign languages such as British Sign Language and American Sign Language used in Anglophone countries, which are independent and not based on English.\n" +
1195 " * E-Prime excludes forms of the verb to be.\n" +
1197 "Euro-English (also EuroEnglish or Euro-English) terms are English translations of European concepts that are not native to English-speaking countries. Due to the United Kingdom's (and even the Republic of Ireland's) involvement in the European Union, the usage focuses on non-British concepts. This kind of Euro-English was parodied when English was \"made\" one of the constituent languages of Europanto.\n" +
1242 " 2. Many dialects of North American English do not have this vowel. See Cot-caught merger.\n" +
1243 " 3. The North American variation of this sound is a rhotic vowel.\n" +
1244 " 4. Many speakers of North American English do not distinguish between these two unstressed vowels. For them, roses and Rosa's are pronounced the same, and the symbol usually used is schwa /?/.\n" +
1247 " 7. The letter <U> can represent either /u/ or the iotated vowel /ju/. In BRP, if this iotated vowel /ju/ occurs after /t/, /d/, /s/ or /z/, it often triggers palatalization of the preceding consonant, turning it to /?/, /?/, /?/ and /?/ respectively, as in tune, during, sugar, and azure. In American English, palatalization does not generally happen unless the /ju/ is followed by r, with the result that /(t, d,s, z)jur/ turn to /t??/, /d??/, /??/ and /??/ respectively, as in nature, verdure, sure, and treasure.\n" +
1248 " 8. Vowel length plays a phonetic role in the majority of English dialects, and is said to be phonemic in a few dialects, such as Australian English and New Zealand English. In certain dialects of the modern English language, for instance General American, there is allophonic vowel length: vowel phonemes are realized as long vowel allophones before voiced consonant phonemes in the coda of a syllable. Before the Great Vowel Shift, vowel length was phonemically contrastive.\n" +
1249 " 9. This sound only occurs in non-rhotic accents. In some accents, this sound may be, instead of /??/, /?:/. See pour-poor merger.\n" +
1250 " 10. This sound only occurs in non-rhotic accents. In some accents, the schwa offglide of /??/ may be dropped, monophthising and lengthening the sound to /?:/.\n" +
1272 " 1. The velar nasal [?] is a non-phonemic allophone of /n/ in some northerly British accents, appearing only before /k/ and /g/. In all other dialects it is a separate phoneme, although it only occurs in syllable codas.\n" +
1273 " 2. The alveolar flap [?] is an allophone of /t/ and /d/ in unstressed syllables in North American English and Australian English.[30] This is the sound of tt or dd in the words latter and ladder, which are homophones for many speakers of North American English. In some accents such as Scottish English and Indian English it replaces /?/. This is the same sound represented by single r in most varieties of Spanish.\n" +
1275 " 4. The sounds /?/, /?/, and /?/ are labialised in some dialects. Labialisation is never contrastive in initial position and therefore is sometimes not transcribed. Most speakers of General American realize <r> (always rhoticized) as the retroflex approximant /?/, whereas the same is realized in Scottish English, etc. as the alveolar trill.\n" +
1276 " 5. The voiceless palatal fricative /ç/ is in most accents just an allophone of /h/ before /j/; for instance human /çju?m?n/. However, in some accents (see this), the /j/ is dropped, but the initial consonant is the same.\n" +
1277 " 6. The voiceless velar fricative /x/ is used only by Scottish or Welsh speakers of English for Scots/Gaelic words such as loch /l?x/ or by some speakers for loanwords from German and Hebrew like Bach /bax/ or Chanukah /xanuka/. In some dialects such as Scouse (Liverpool) either [x] or the affricate [kx] may be used as an allophone of /k/ in words such as docker [d?kx?]. Most native speakers have a great deal of trouble pronouncing it correctly when learning a foreign language. Most speakers use the sounds [k] and [h] instead.\n" +
1278 " 7. Voiceless w [?] is found in Scottish and Irish English, as well as in some varieties of American, New Zealand, and English English. In most other dialects it is merged with /w/, in some dialects of Scots it is merged with /f/.\n" +
1282 "Voicing and aspiration of stop consonants in English depend on dialect and context, but a few general rules can be given:\n" +
1288 " * Word-terminal voiceless plosives may be unreleased or accompanied by a glottal stop in some dialects (e.g. many varieties of American English) ? examples: tap [t?æp?], sack [sæk?].\n" +
1289 " * Word-terminal voiced plosives may be devoiced in some dialects (e.g. some varieties of American English) ? examples: sad [sæd?], bag [bæ??]. In other dialects they are fully voiced in final position, but only partially voiced in initial position.\n" +
1295 "English is an intonation language. This means that the pitch of the voice is used syntactically, for example, to convey surprise and irony, or to change a statement into a question.\n" +
1297 "In English, intonation patterns are on groups of words, which are called tone groups, tone units, intonation groups or sense groups. Tone groups are said on a single breath and, as a consequence, are of limited length, more often being on average five words long or lasting roughly two seconds. For example:\n" +
1303 "Characteristics of intonation\n" +
1305 "English is a strongly stressed language, in that certain syllables, both within words and within phrases, get a relative prominence/loudness during pronunciation while the others do not. The former kind of syllables are said to be accentuated/stressed and the latter are unaccentuated/unstressed. All good dictionaries of
1334 "The nuclear syllable is spoken more loudly than the others and has a characteristic change of pitch. The changes of pitch most commonly encountered in English are the rising pitch and the falling pitch, although the fall-rising pitch and/or the rise-falling pitch are sometimes used. In this opposition between falling and rising pitch, which plays a larger role in English than in most other languages, falling pitch conveys certainty and rising pitch uncertainty. This can have a crucial impact on meaning, specifically in relation to polarity, the positive?negative opposition; thus, falling pitch means \"polarity known\", while rising pitch means \"polarity unknown\". This underlies the rising pitch of yes/no questions. For example:\n" +
1344 "English grammar has minimal inflection compared with most other Indo-European languages. For example, Modern English, unlike Modern German or Dutch and the Romance languages, lacks grammatical gender and adjectival agreement. Case marking has almost disappeared from the language and mainly survives in pronouns. The patterning of strong (e.g. speak/spoke/spoken) versus weak verbs inherited from its Germanic origins has declined in importance in modern English, and the remnants of inflection (such as plural marking) have become more regular.\n" +
1352 "Germanic words (generally words of Old English or to a lesser extent Norse origin) which include all the basics such as pronouns (I, my, you, it) and conjunctions (and, or, but) tend to be shorter than the Latinate words of English, and more common in ordinary speech. The longer Latinate words are often regarded as more elegant or educated. However, the excessive or superfluous use of Latinate words is considered at times to be either pretentious (as in the stereotypical policeman's talk of \"apprehending the suspect\") or an attempt to obfuscate an issue. George Orwell's essay \"Politics and the English Language\" is critical of this, as well as other perceived abuses of the language.\n" +
1354 "An English speaker is in many cases able to choose between Germanic and Latinate synonyms: come or arrive; sight or vision; freedom or liberty. In some cases there is a choice between a Germanic derived word (oversee), a Latin derived word (supervise), and a French word derived from the same Latin word (survey). The richness of the language arises from the variety of different meanings and nuances such synonyms harbour, enabling the speaker to express fine variations or shades of thought. Familiarity with the etymology of groups of synonyms can give English speakers greater control over their linguistic register. See: List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents.\n" +
1356 "An exception to this and a peculiarity perhaps unique to English is that the nouns for meats are commonly different from, and unrelated to, those for the animals from which they are produced, the animal commonly having a Germanic name and the meat having a French-derived one. Examples include: deer and venison; cow and beef; swine/pig and pork, or sheep and mutton. This is assumed to be a result of the aftermath of the Norman invasion, where a French-speaking elite were the consumers of the meat, produced by English-speaking lower classes.\n" +
1358 "In everyday speech, the majority of words will normally be Germanic. If a speaker wishes to make a forceful point in an argument in a very blunt way, Germanic words will usually be chosen. A majority of Latinate words (or at least a majority of content words) will normally be used in more formal speech and writing, such as a courtroom or an encyclopedia article. However, there are other Latinate words that are used normally in everyday speech and do not sound formal; these are mainly words for concepts that no longer have Germanic words, and are generally assimilated better and in many cases do not appear Latinate. For instance, the words mountain, valley, river, aunt, uncle, move, use, push and stay are all Latinate.\n" +
1360 "English is noted for the vast size of its active vocabulary and its fluidity.[citation needed][weasel words] English easily accepts technical terms into common usage and imports new words and phrases that often come into common usage. Examples of this phenomenon include: cookie, Internet and URL (technical terms), as well as genre, über, lingua franca and amigo (imported words/phrases from French, German, modern Latin, and Spanish, respectively). In addition, slang often provides new meanings for old words and phrases. In fact, this fluidity is so pronounced that a distinction often needs to be made between formal forms of English and contemporary usage. See also: sociolinguistics.\n" +
1362 "Number of words in English\n" +
1364 "English has an extraordinarily rich vocabulary and willingness to absorb new words. As the General Explanations at the beginning of the Oxford English Dictionary states:\n" +
1366 " The Vocabulary of a widely diffused and highly cultivated living language is not a fixed quantity circumscribed by definite limits... there is absolutely no defining line in any direction: the circle of the English language has a well-defined centre but no discernible circumference.\n" +
1368 "The vocabulary of English is undoubtedly vast, but assigning a specific number to its size is more a matter of definition than of calculation. Unlike other languages, there is no Academy to define officially accepted words. Neologisms are coined regularly in medicine, science and technology and other fields, and new slang is constantly developed. Some of these new words enter wide usage; others remain restricted to small circles. Foreign words used in immigrant communities often make their way into wider English usage. Archaic, dialectal, and regional words might or might not be widely considered as \"English\".\n" +
1372 " It embraces not only the standard language of literature and conversation, whether current at the moment, or obsolete, or archaic, but also the main technical vocabulary, and a large measure of dialectal usage and slang (Supplement to the OED, 1933).[32]\n" +
1374 "The editors of Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged (475,000 main headwords) in their preface, estimate the number to be much higher. It is estimated that about 25,000 words are added to the language each year.[33]\n" +
1380 " Main article: Lists of English words of international origin\n" +
1382 "One of the consequences of the French influence is that the vocabulary of English is, to a certain extent, divided between those words which are Germanic (mostly Old English) and those which are \"Latinate\" (Latin-derived, either directly from Norman French or other Romance languages).\n" +
1384 "Numerous sets of statistics have been proposed to demonstrate the various origins of English vocabulary. None, as yet, are considered definitive by a majority of linguists.\n" +
1386 "A computerised survey of about 80,000 words in the old Shorter Oxford Dictionary (3rd ed.) was published in Ordered Profusion by Thomas Finkenstaedt and Dieter Wolff (1973)[34] that estimated the origin of English words as follows:\n" +
1396 "A survey by Joseph M. Williams in Origins of the English Language of 10,000 words taken from several thousand business letters[35] gave this set of statistics:\n" +
1405 "However, 83% of the 1,000 most-common English words are Anglo-Saxon in origin. [36]\n" +
1409 " Main article: List of English words of Dutch origin\n" +
1411 "Words describing the navy, types of ships, and other objects or activities on the water are often from Dutch origin. Yacht (Jacht) and cruiser (kruiser) are examples.\n" +
1415 " Main article: List of French phrases used by English speakers\n" +
1417 "There are many words of French origin in English, such as competition, art, table, publicity, police, role, routine, machine, force, and many others that have been and are being anglicised; they are now pronounced according to English rules of phonology, rather than French. A large portion of English vocabulary is of French or Oïl language origin, most derived from, or transmitted via, the Anglo-Norman spoken by the upper classes in England for several hundred years after the Norman Conquest.\n";
3196 " This is a version (aka dlmalloc) of malloc/free/realloc written by\n" +
3204 " Note: There may be an updated version of this malloc obtainable at\n" +
3212 " of the compile-time options default to reasonable values for use on\n" +
3235 " The main properties of the algorithms are:\n" +
3239 " allocator, that maintains pools of quickly recycled chunks.\n" +
3240 " * In between, and for combinations of large and small requests, it does\n" +
3245 " For a longer but slightly out of date high-level description, see\n" +
3249 " that is based on some version of this malloc (for example in\n" +
3254 "* Contents, described in more detail in \"description of public routines\" below.\n" +
3288 " Each malloced chunk has a hidden word of overhead holding size\n" +
3301 " pointer to something of the minimum allocatable size.\n" +
3303 " The maximum overhead wastage (i.e., number of extra bytes\n" +
3328 " also fail because a system is out of memory.)\n" +
3340 " derived from a version of this malloc, and is well-tuned for\n" +
3350 "* Synopsis of compile-time options:\n" +
3352 " People have reported using previous versions of this malloc on all\n" +
3353 " versions of Unix, sometimes by tweaking some of the defines\n" +
3359 " at all modular. (Sorry!) It uses a lot of macros. To be at all\n" +
3476 "/* Use the supplied emulation of sbrk */\n" +
3481 "/* Use the supplied emulation of mmap and munmap */\n" +
3492 "/* Emulation functions defined at the end of this file */\n" +
3569 " If you compile with -DDEBUG, a number of assertion checks are\n" +
3571 " able to make much sense of the actual assertion errors, but they\n" +
3576 " course of computing the summmaries. (By nature, mmapped regions\n" +
3585 " bounds. However, there are several add-ons and adaptations of this\n" +
3610 " of chunk sizes.\n" +
3620 " expense of not being able to handle more than 2^32 of malloced\n" +
3624 " potential advantages of decreasing size_t word size.\n" +
3626 " Implementors: Beware of the possible combinations of:\n" +
3633 " aware of the fact that casting an unsigned int to a wider long does\n" +
3635 " awkward.) Some of these casts result in harmless compiler warnings\n" +
3650 " It must be a power of two at least 2 * SIZE_SZ, even on machines\n" +
3653 " are optimized for the case of 8-byte alignment.\n" +
3676 " TRIM_FASTBINS controls whether free() of a very small chunk can\n" +
3679 " of small chunks.\n" +
3699 " of a program, using your regular system malloc elsewhere.\n" +
3721 " this, without USE_MALLOC_LOCK, for purposes of interception,\n" +
3723 " noticeably degrades performance of malloc-intensive programs.\n" +
3735 " All of the actual routines are given mangled names.\n" +
3804 " (of <= 36 bytes) are manually unrolled in realloc and calloc.\n" +
3840 " exhausted or because of illegal arguments.\n" +
3871 " MORECORE is the name of the routine to call to obtain more memory\n" +
3882 " MORECORE_FAILURE is the value returned upon failure of MORECORE\n" +
3884 " and must reflect values of standard sys calls, you probably ought not\n" +
3893 " If MORECORE_CONTIGUOUS is true, take advantage of fact that\n" +
3895 " contiguous increasing addresses. This is true of unix sbrk. Even\n" +
3907 " Define MORECORE_CANNOT_TRIM if your version of MORECORE\n" +
3952 " HAVE_MMAP). The value must be a multiple of page size. This\n" +
3957 " only when programs allocate huge amounts of memory. Between this,\n" +
3960 " of kernel resources.\n" +
3986 " cached during initialization into a field of malloc_state. So even\n" +
3990 " getpagesize.h. If none of the system-probes here apply, a value of\n" +
4015 "# ifdef WIN32 /* use supplied emulation of getpagesize */\n" +
4048 " This version of malloc supports the standard SVID/XPG mallinfo\n" +
4058 " bunch of fields that are not even meaningful in this version of\n" +
4060 " other numbers that might be of interest.\n" +
4063 " /usr/include/malloc.h file that includes a declaration of struct\n" +
4066 " mallinfo() to work. The original SVID version of this struct,\n" +
4069 " defines the fields using a type of different width than listed here,\n" +
4084 " int ordblks; /* number of free chunks */\n" +
4085 " int smblks; /* number of fastbin blocks */\n" +
4086 " int hblks; /* number of mmapped regions */\n" +
4097 " normally defined in malloc.h. Only one of these (M_MXFAST) is used\n" +
4105 "/* ---------- description of public routines ------------ */\n" +
4109 " Returns a pointer to a newly allocated chunk of at least n bytes, or null\n" +
4117 " of space, which will often fail. The maximum supported value of n\n" +
4119 " representable value of a size_t.\n" +
4129 " Releases the chunk of memory pointed to by p, that had been previously\n" +
4157 " Returns a pointer to a chunk of size n that contains the same data\n" +
4158 " as does chunk p up to the minimum of (n, p's size) bytes, or null\n" +
4163 " equivalent of a malloc-copy-free sequence.\n" +
4172 " REALLOC_ZERO_BYTES_FREES is set, realloc with a size argument of\n" +
4179 " The old unix realloc convention of allowing the last-free'd chunk\n" +
4190 " Returns a pointer to a newly allocated chunk of n bytes, aligned\n" +
4193 " The alignment argument should be a power of two. If the argument is\n" +
4194 " not a power of two, the nearest greater power is used.\n" +
4196 " bother calling memalign with an argument of 8 or less.\n" +
4209 " size of the system. If the pagesize is unknown, 4096 is used.\n" +
4226 " normally defined in malloc.h. Only one of these (M_MXFAST) is used\n" +
4238 " M_MMAP_MAX -4 65536 any (0 disables use of mmap)\n" +
4252 " ordblks: the number of free chunks\n" +
4253 " smblks: the number of fastbin blocks (i.e., small chunks that\n" +
4255 " hblks: current number of mmapped regions\n" +
4262 " keepcost: the maximum number of bytes that could ideally be released\n" +
4279 " independent_calloc is similar to calloc, but instead of returning a\n" +
4280 " single cleared space, it returns an array of pointers to n_elements\n" +
4281 " independent elements that can hold contents of size elem_size, each\n" +
4282 " of which starts out cleared, and can be independently freed,\n" +
4291 " no longer needed. Otherwise, the chunks array must be of at least\n" +
4306 " independent_calloc simplifies and speeds up implementations of many\n" +
4307 " kinds of pools. It may also be useful when constructing large data\n" +
4308 " structures that initially have a fixed number of fixed-sized nodes,\n" +
4309 " but the number is not known at compile time, and some of the nodes\n" +
4337 " independent_comalloc allocates, all at once, a set of n_elements\n" +
4339 " an array of pointers to these elements, each of which can be\n" +
4348 " must be of at least n_elements in length. It is filled in with the\n" +
4386 " larger values of n_elements. For small values, you probably won't\n" +
4387 " detect enough difference from series of malloc calls to bother.\n" +
4389 " Overuse of independent_comalloc can increase overall memory usage,\n" +
4391 " might be available for some of the elements.\n" +
4417 " code in the first edition of K&R).\n" +
4429 " arguments to sbrk) if there is unused memory at the `high' end of\n" +
4430 " the malloc pool. You can call this after freeing large blocks of\n" +
4432 " of a program. However, it cannot guarantee to reduce memory. Under\n" +
4433 " some allocation patterns, some large free blocks of memory will be\n" +
4437 " The `pad' argument to malloc_trim represents the amount of free\n" +
4439 " only the minimum amount of memory to maintain internal data\n" +
4458 " Returns the number of bytes you can actually use in\n" +
4478 " Prints on stderr the amount of space obtained from the system (both\n" +
4481 " number of bytes allocated via malloc (or realloc, etc) but not yet\n" +
4482 " freed. Note that this is the number of bytes allocated, not the\n" +
4484 " because of alignment and bookkeeping overhead. Because it includes\n" +
4490 " (normally sbrk) outside of malloc.\n" +
4507 " enables future requests for chunks of the same size to be handled\n" +
4509 " overall memory footprint of a program.\n" +
4513 " than or equal to the default. The maximum supported value of MXFAST\n" +
4523 " M_MXFAST to 0 to disable all use of fastbins. This causes the malloc\n" +
4524 " algorithm to be a closer approximation of fifo-best-fit in all cases,\n" +
4541 " M_TRIM_THRESHOLD is the maximum amount of unused top-most memory\n" +
4553 " two different ways of releasing unused memory back to the\n" +
4555 " system-level demands of a long-lived program down to a bare\n" +
4556 " minimum. For example, in one test suite of sessions measuring\n" +
4557 " the XF86 X server on Linux, using a trim threshold of 128K and a\n" +
4558 " mmap threshold of 192K led to near-minimal long term resource\n" +
4563 " might set to a value close to the average size of a process\n" +
4571 " controlling release of large blocks via trimming versus mapping\n" +
4575 " protection against the system-level effects of carrying around\n" +
4576 " massive amounts of unneeded memory. Since frequent calls to\n" +
4588 " instead delayed until subsequent freeing of larger chunks. However,\n" +
4594 " Note that the trick some people use of mallocing a huge space and\n" +
4607 " M_TOP_PAD is the amount of extra `padding' space to allocate or\n" +
4610 " * When sbrk is called to extend the top of the arena to satisfy\n" +
4617 " In both cases, the actual amount of padding is rounded\n" +
4618 " so that the end of the arena is always a system page boundary.\n" +
4629 " this value, at the expense of carrying around more memory than\n" +
4641 " to service a request. Requests of at least this size that cannot\n" +
4645 " Using mmap segregates relatively large chunks of memory so that\n" +
4655 " demands of a long-lived program low.\n" +
4666 " 2. It can lead to more wastage because of mmap page alignment\n" +
4674 " The advantages of mmap nearly always outweigh disadvantages for\n" +
4675 " \"large\" chunks, but the value of \"large\" varies across systems. The\n" +
4687 " M_MMAP_MAX is the maximum number of requests to simultaneously\n" +
4689 ". Some systems have a limited number of internal tables for\n" +
4690 of them may degrade\n" +
4694 " Setting to 0 disables use of mmap for servicing large requests. If\n" +
4761 " The return value of MALLOC_POSTACTION is currently ignored\n" +
5010 "/* ------------- Optional versions of memcopy ---------------- */\n" +
5084 " Nearly all versions of mmap support MAP_ANONYMOUS,\n" +
5122 " INTERNAL_SIZE_T prev_size; /* Size of previous chunk (if free). */\n" +
5137 " Chunks of memory are maintained using a `boundary tag' method as\n" +
5140 " survey of such techniques.) Sizes of free chunks are stored both\n" +
5141 " in the front of each chunk and at the end. This makes\n" +
5150 " | Size of previous chunk, if allocated | |\n" +
5152 " | Size of chunk, in bytes |P|\n" +
5159 " | Size of chunk |\n" +
5163 " Where \"chunk\" is the front of the chunk for the purpose of most of\n" +
5165 " user. \"Nextchunk\" is the beginning of the next contiguous chunk.\n" +
5174 " | Size of previous chunk |\n" +
5176 " `head:' | Size of chunk, in bytes |P|\n" +
5186 " `foot:' | Size of chunk, in bytes |\n" +
5189 " The P (PREV_INUSE) bit, stored in the unused low-order bit of the\n" +
5190 " chunk size (which is always a multiple of two words), is an in-use\n" +
5193 " size, and can be used to find the front of the previous chunk.\n" +
5197 " the size of the previous chunk, and might even get a memory\n" +
5200 " Note that the `foot' of the current chunk is actually represented\n" +
5201 " as the prev_size of the NEXT chunk. This makes it easier to\n" +
5275 "/* extract inuse bit of previous chunk */\n" +
5344 " All internal state is held in an instance of malloc_state defined\n" +
5351 " Beware of lots of tricks that minimize the total bookkeeping space\n" +
5359 " An array of bin headers for free chunks. Each bin is doubly\n" +
5361 " There are a lot of these bins (128). This may look excessive, but\n" +
5364 " and consolidated sets of chunks, which is what these bins hold, so\n" +
5368 " inuse chunks or the ends of memory.\n" +
5378 " Chunks of the same size are linked with the most\n" +
5388 " only the fd/bk pointers of bins, and then use repositioning tricks\n" +
5389 " to treat these as the fields of a malloc_chunk*.\n" +
5397 "/* analog of ++bin */\n" +
5415 " Bins for sizes < 512 bytes contain chunks of all the same size, spaced\n" +
5418 " 64 bins of size 8\n" +
5419 " 32 bins of size 64\n" +
5420 " 16 bins of size 512\n" +
5421 " 8 bins of size 4096\n" +
5422 " 4 bins of size 32768\n" +
5423 " 2 bins of size 262144\n" +
5424 " 1 bin of size what's left\n" +
5446 " unsigned int m; /* bit position of highest set bit of m */\n" +
5460 " Based on branch-free nlz algorithm in chapter 5 of Henry\n" +
5492 " non-best-fitting by up to the width of the bin.\n" +
5523 " The top-most available chunk (i.e., the one bordering the end of\n" +
5544 " To help compensate for the large number of bins, a one-level index\n" +
5567 " An array of lists holding recently freed small chunks. Fastbins\n" +
5569 " since chunks are never removed from the middles of these lists,\n" +
5592 " FASTBIN_CONSOLIDATION_THRESHOLD is the size of a chunk in free()\n" +
5593 " that triggers automatic consolidation of possibly-surrounding\n" +
5636 " Set value of max_fast.\n" +
5650 " or controlled properties of the morecore function\n" +
5677 " /* Base of the topmost chunk -- not otherwise kept in a bin */\n" +
5680 " /* The remainder from the most recent split of a small request */\n" +
5686 " /* Bitmap of bins. Trailing zero map handles cases of largest binned size */\n" +
5702 " /* Track properties of MORECORE */\n" +
5716 " There is exactly one instance of this struct in this malloc.\n" +
5720 " all zeroes (as is true of C statics).\n" +
5726 " All uses of av_ are via get_malloc_state().\n" +
5727 " At most one \"call\" to get_malloc_state is made per invocation of\n" +
5728 " the public versions of malloc and free, but other routines\n" +
5740 " outside of malloc_consolidate because some optimizing compilers try\n" +
5800 " These routines make a number of assertions about the states\n" +
5801 " of data structures that should be true at all times. If any\n" +
5825 " Properties of all chunks\n" +
5875 " Properties of free chunks\n" +
5910 " else /* markers are always of size SIZE_SZ */\n" +
5915 " Properties of inuse chunks\n" +
5957 " Properties of chunks recycled from fastbins\n" +
5981 " Properties of nonrecycled chunks at the point they are malloced\n" +
5995 " always true of any allocated chunk; i.e., that each allocated\n" +
5997 " chunk, or the base of its memory arena. This is ensured\n" +
5998 " by making all allocations from the the `lowest' part of any found\n" +
6008 " Properties of malloc_state.\n" +
6035 " /* alignment is a power of 2 */\n" +
6042 " /* pagesize is a power of 2 */\n" +
6045 " /* properties of fastbins */\n" +
6105 " /* chunk is followed by a legal chain of inuse chunks */\n" +
6150 " mchunkptr old_top; /* incoming value of av->top */\n" +
6160 " INTERNAL_SIZE_T front_misalign; /* unusable bytes at front of new space */\n" +
6161 " INTERNAL_SIZE_T end_misalign; /* partial page left at end of new space */\n" +
6216 " The offset to the start of the mmapped region is stored\n" +
6217 " in the prev_size field of the chunk. This allows us to adjust\n" +
6257 " /* Record incoming configuration of top */\n" +
6295 " Round to a multiple of page size.\n" +
6298 " this is not first time through, this preserves page-alignment of\n" +
6370 " just to find out where the end of memory lies.\n" +
6380 " which case we might as well use the whole last page of request.\n" +
6396 " the presence of \"foreign\" calls to MORECORE from outside of\n" +
6409 " to foreign calls) but treat them as part of our space for\n" +
6415 " /* Guarantee alignment of first new chunk made from this space */\n" +
6424 " prev_inuse of av->top (and any chunk created from its start)\n" +
6457 " it says it won't, the only course of
6458 " results of second call, and conservatively estimate where\n" +
6479 " /* Find out current end of memory */\n" +
6486 " /* Adjust top based on results of second sbrk */\n" +
6504 " multiple of MALLOC_ALIGNMENT. We know there is at least\n" +
6552 " /* check that one of the above allocation paths succeeded */\n" +
6574 " sYSTRIm is an inverse of sorts to sYSMALLOc. It gives memory back\n" +
6576 " memory at the `high' end of the malloc pool. It is called\n" +
6590 " long top_size; /* Amount of top-most memory */\n" +
6606 " Only proceed if end of memory is where we last set it.\n" +
6614 " and instead call again to find out where new end of memory is.\n" +
6616 " of if failure somehow altered brk value. (We could still\n" +
6670 " unsigned int map; /* current word of binmap */\n" +
6678 " to obtain a size of at least MINSIZE, the smallest allocatable\n" +
6737 " Also, in practice, programs tend to have runs of either small or\n" +
6764 " runs of consecutive small requests. This is the only\n" +
6793 " /* Take now instead of binning if exact fit */\n" +
6839 " If a large request, scan through the chunks of current bin to\n" +
6842 " the only step where an unbounded number of chunks might be\n" +
6896 " /* Skip rest of block if there are no more set bits in this block. */\n" +
6899 of bins */\n" +
6965 " If large enough, split off the chunk bordering the end of memory\n" +
7018 " INTERNAL_SIZE_T prevsize; /* size of previous contiguous chunk */\n" +
7100 " If the chunk borders the current high end of memory,\n" +
7162 " malloc_consolidate is a specialized version of free() that tears\n" +
7165 " fastbins. So, instead, we need to use a minor variant of the same\n" +
7223 " /* Slightly streamlined version of consolidation code in free() */\n" +
7295 " mchunkptr remainder; /* extra space at end of newp */\n" +
7315 " /* realloc of null is supposed to be same as malloc */\n" +
7373 " Unroll copy of <= 36 bytes (72 if 8byte sizes)\n" +
7374 " We know that contents have an odd number of\n" +
7529 " /* Make sure alignment is power of 2 (in case MINSIZE is not). */\n" +
7556 " leading space in a chunk of at least MINSIZE, if the first\n" +
7629 " Unroll clear of <= 36 bytes (72 if 8byte sizes)\n" +
7630 " We know that contents have an odd number of\n" +
7699 " /* opts arg of 3 means all elements are same size, and should be cleared */\n" +
7719 " ialloc provides common support for independent_X routines, handling all of\n" +
7738 " INTERNAL_SIZE_T element_size; /* chunksize of each element, if all same */\n" +
7739 " INTERNAL_SIZE_T contents_size; /* total size of elements */\n" +
7740 " INTERNAL_SIZE_T array_size; /* request size of pointer array */\n" +
7805 " /* If not provided, allocate the pointer array as final part of chunk */\n" +
8095 " * MORECORE must allocate in multiples of pagesize. It will\n" +
8096 " only be called with arguments that are multiples of pagesize.\n" +
8107 " * MORECORE need not allocate in multiples of pagesize.\n" +
8108 " Calls to MORECORE need not have args of multiples of pagesize.\n" +
8118 " instead return one past the end address of memory from previous\n" +
8129 " Negative arguments are always multiples of pagesize. MORECORE\n" +
8134 " There is some variation across systems about the type of the\n" +
8137 " normally the signed type of the same width as size_t (sometimes\n" +
8151 " Malloc only has limited ability to detect failures of MORECORE\n" +
8231 " Emulation of sbrk for win32.\n" +
8727 "}; /* end of namespace KJS */\n");
9019 " * ????????????????????????? ????????????? 71 ??? 155 ??????????? ??? Index of Economic Freedom\n" +
