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16 // THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
1051 " Editing of this article by unregistered or newly registered users is currently disabled.\n" +
1071 "Regulated by: no official regulation\n" +
1122 "English is an Anglo-Frisian language. Germanic-speaking peoples from northwest Germany (Saxons and Angles) and Jutland (Jutes) invaded what is now known as Eastern England around the fifth century AD. It is a matter of debate whether the Old English language spread by displacement of the original population, or the native Celts gradually adopted the language and culture of a new ruling class, or a combination of both of these processes (see Sub-Roman Britain).\n" +
1124 "Whatever their origin, these Germanic dialects eventually coalesced to a degree (there remained geographical variation) and formed what is today called Old English. Old English loosely resembles some coastal dialects in what are now northwest Germany and the Netherlands (i.e., Frisia). Throughout the history of written Old English, it retained a synthetic structure closer to that of Proto-Indo-European, largely adopting West Saxon scribal conventions, while spoken Old English became increasingly analytic in nature, losing the more complex noun case system, relying more heavily on prepositions and fixed word order to convey meaning. This is evident in the Middle English period, when literature was to an increasing extent recorded with spoken dialectal variation intact, after written Old English lost its status as the literary language of the nobility. It is postulated that the early development of the language was influenced by a Celtic substratum.[5][6] Later, it was influenced by the related North Germanic language Old Norse, spoken by the Vikings who settled mainly in the north and the east coast down to London, the area known as the Danelaw.\n" +
1126 "The Norman Conquest of England in 1066 profoundly influenced the evolution of the language. For about 300 years after this, the Normans used Anglo-Norman, which was close to Old French, as the language of the court, law and administration. By the fourteenth century, Anglo-Norman borrowings had contributed roughly 10,000 words to English, of which 75% remain in use. These include many words pertaining to the legal and administrative fields, but also include common words for food, such as mutton[7] and beef[8]. The Norman influence gave rise to what is now referred to as Middle English. Later, during the English Renaissance, many words were borrowed directly from Latin (giving rise to a number of doublets) and Greek, leaving a parallel vocabulary that persists into modern times. By the seventeenth century there was a reaction in some circles against so-called inkhorn terms.\n" +
1128 "During the fifteenth century, Middle English was transformed by the Great Vowel Shift, the spread of a prestigious South Eastern-based dialect in the court, administration and academic life, and the standardising effect of printing. Early Modern English can be traced back to around the Elizabethan period.\n" +
1140 " See also: List of countries by English-speaking population\n" +
1142 "Over 380 million people speak English as their first language. English today is probably the third largest language by number of native speakers, after Mandarin Chinese and Spanish.[9][10] However, when combining native and non-native speakers it is probably the most commonly spoken language in the world, though possibly second to a combination of the Chinese Languages, depending on whether or not distinctions in the latter are classified as \"languages\" or \"dialects.\"[11][12] Estimates that include second language speakers vary greatly from 470 million to over a billion depending on how literacy or mastery is defined.[13][14] There are some who claim that non-native speakers now outnumber native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1.[15]\n" +
1145 "Distribution of native English speakers by country (Crystal 1997)\n" +
1146 "Distribution of native English speakers by country (Crystal 1997)\n" +
1161 "English is not an official language in either the United States or the United Kingdom.[25][26] Although the United States federal government has no official languages, English has been given official status by 30 of the 50 state governments.[27]\n" +
1167 "Because English is so widely spoken, it has often been referred to as a \"global language\", the lingua franca of the modern era.[2] While English is not an official language in many countries, it is currently the language most often taught as a second language around the world. Some linguists believe that it is no longer the exclusive cultural sign of \"native English speakers\", but is rather a language that is absorbing aspects of cultures worldwide as it continues to grow. It is, by international treaty, the official language for aerial and maritime communications, as well as one of the official languages of the European Union, the United Nations, and most international athletic organisations, including the International Olympic Committee.\n" +
1169 "English is the language most often studied as a foreign language in the European Union (by 89% of schoolchildren), followed by French (32%), German (18%), and Spanish (8%).[28] In the EU, a large fraction of the population reports being able to converse to some extent in English. Among non-English speaking countries, a large percentage of the population claimed to be able to converse in English in the Netherlands (87%), Sweden (85%), Denmark (83%), Luxembourg (66%), Finland (60%), Slovenia (56%), Austria (53%), Belgium (52%), and Germany (51%). [29] Norway and Iceland also have a large majority of competent English-speakers.\n" +
1189 " * Basic English is simplified for easy international use. It is used by manufacturers and other international businesses to write manuals and communicate. Some English schools in Asia teach it as a practical subset of English for use by beginners.\n" +
1190 " * Special English is a simplified version of English used by the Voice of America. It uses a vocabulary of only 1500 words.\n" +
1192 " * Seaspeak and the related Airspeak and Policespeak, all based on restricted vocabularies, were designed by Edward Johnson in the 1980s to aid international cooperation and communication in specific areas. There is also a tunnelspeak for use in the Channel Tunnel.\n" +
1247 " 7. The letter <U> can represent either /u/ or the iotated vowel /ju/. In BRP, if this iotated vowel /ju/ occurs after /t/, /d/, /s/ or /z/, it often triggers palatalization of the preceding consonant, turning it to /?/, /?/, /?/ and /?/ respectively, as in tune, during, sugar, and azure. In American English, palatalization does not generally happen unless the /ju/ is followed by r, with the result that /(t, d,s, z)jur/ turn to /t??/, /d??/, /??/ and /??/ respectively, as in nature, verdure, sure, and treasure.\n" +
1273 " 2. The alveolar flap [?] is an allophone of /t/ and /d/ in unstressed syllables in North American English and Australian English.[30] This is the sound of tt or dd in the words latter and ladder, which are homophones for many speakers of North American English. In some accents such as Scottish English and Indian English it replaces /?/. This is the same sound represented by single r in most varieties of Spanish.\n" +
1277 " 6. The voiceless velar fricative /x/ is used only by Scottish or Welsh speakers of English for Scots/Gaelic words such as loch /l?x/ or by some speakers for loanwords from German and Hebrew like Bach /bax/ or Chanukah /xanuka/. In some dialects such as Scouse (Liverpool) either [x] or the affricate [kx] may be used as an allophone of /k/ in words such as docker [d?kx?]. Most native speakers have a great deal of trouble pronouncing it correctly when learning a foreign language. Most speakers use the sounds [k] and [h] instead.\n" +
1288 " * Word-terminal voiceless plosives may be unreleased or accompanied by a glottal stop in some dialects (e.g. many varieties of American English) ? examples: tap [t?æp?], sack [sæk?].\n" +
1305 "English is a strongly stressed language, in that certain syllables, both within words and within phrases, get a relative prominence/loudness during pronunciation while the others do not. The former kind of syllables are said to be accentuated/stressed and the latter are unaccentuated/unstressed. All good dictionaries of English mark the accentuated syllable(s) by
1317 " John hadn't stolen that money. (... He acquired the money by some other means.)\n" +
1356 "An exception to this and a peculiarity perhaps unique to English is that the nouns for meats are commonly different from, and unrelated to, those for the animals from which they are produced, the animal commonly having a Germanic name and the meat having a French-derived one. Examples include: deer and venison; cow and beef; swine/pig and pork, or sheep and mutton. This is assumed to be a result of the aftermath of the Norman invasion, where a French-speaking elite were the consumers of the meat, produced by English-speaking lower classes.\n" +
1366 " The Vocabulary of a widely diffused and highly cultivated living language is not a fixed quantity circumscribed by definite limits... there is absolutely no defining line in any direction: the circle of the English language has a well-defined centre but no discernible circumference.\n" +
1384 "Numerous sets of statistics have been proposed to demonstrate the various origins of English vocabulary. None, as yet, are considered definitive by a majority of linguists.\n" +
1386 "A computerised survey of about 80,000 words in the old Shorter Oxford Dictionary (3rd ed.) was published in Ordered Profusion by Thomas Finkenstaedt and Dieter Wolff (1973)[34] that estimated the origin of English words as follows:\n" +
1396 "A survey by Joseph M. Williams in Origins of the English Language of 10,000 words taken from several thousand business letters[35] gave this set of statistics:\n" +
1415 " Main article: List of French phrases used by English speakers\n" +
1417 "There are many words of French origin in English, such as competition, art, table, publicity, police, role, routine, machine, force, and many others that have been and are being anglicised; they are now pronounced according to English rules of phonology, rather than French. A large portion of English vocabulary is of French or Oïl language origin, most derived from, or transmitted via, the Anglo-Norman spoken by the upper classes in England for several hundred years after the Norman Conquest.\n";
3196 " This is a version (aka dlmalloc) of malloc/free/realloc written by\n" +
3224 " own malloc.h that does include all settings by cutting at the point\n" +
3238 " * For small (<= 64 bytes by default) requests, it is a caching\n" +
3242 " * For very large requests (>= 128KB by default), it relies on system\n" +
3248 " You may already by default be using a C library containing a malloc\n" +
3280 " You can adjust this by defining INTERNAL_SIZE_T\n" +
3318 " Additionally, even when size_t is unsigned, sbrk (which is by\n" +
3353 " versions of Unix, sometimes by tweaking some of the defines\n" +
3565 " malloc will often die when freed memory is overwritten by user\n" +
3576 " course of computing the summmaries. (By nature, mmapped regions\n" +
3618 " On a 64-bit machine, you may be able to reduce malloc overhead by\n" +
3684 " essentially the same effect by setting MXFAST to 0, but this can\n" +
3842 " By default, sets errno if running on STD_C platform, else does nothing.\n" +
3856 " MORECORE-related declarations. By default, rely on sbrk\n" +
4057 " (by-copy) by mallinfo(). The SVID/XPG malloinfo struct contains a\n" +
4059 " malloc. These fields are are instead filled by mallinfo() with\n" +
4129 " Releases the chunk of memory pointed to by p, that had been previously\n" +
4170 " if n is for fewer bytes than already held by p, the newly unused\n" +
4195 " 8-byte alignment is guaranteed by normal malloc calls, so don't\n" +
4249 " Returns (by copy) a struct containing various summary statistics:\n" +
4493 " More information can be obtained by calling mallinfo.\n" +
4548 " enough so that your overall system performance would improve by\n" +
4589 " you can still force an attempted trim by calling malloc_trim.\n" +
4647 " system. A request serviced through mmap is never reused by any\n" +
4690 by mmap, and using more than a few of them may degrade\n" +
5135 " (The following includes lightly edited explanations by Colin Plumb.)\n" +
5138 " described in e.g., Knuth or Standish. (See the paper by Paul\n" +
5215 " allocated one-by-one, each must contain its own trailing size field.\n" +
5290 " cause helpful core dumps to occur if it is tried by accident by\n" +
5367 " chunk in a list is known to be preceeded and followed by either\n" +
5490 " best fit guarantees to sometimes speed up malloc by increasing value.\n" +
5492 " non-best-fitting by up to the width of the bin.\n" +
5545 " structure is used for bin-by-bin searching. `binmap' is a\n" +
5937 " /* ... and is surrounded by OK chunks.\n" +
5998 " by making all allocations from the the `lowest' part of any found\n" +
6105 " /* chunk is followed by a legal chain of inuse chunks */\n" +
6397 " malloc or by other threads. We cannot guarantee to detect\n" +
6577 " automatically by free() when top space exceeds the trim\n" +
6578 " threshold. It is also called by the public malloc_trim routine. It\n" +
6593 " char* current_brk; /* address returned by pre-check sbrk call */\n" +
6594 " char* new_brk; /* address returned by post-check sbrk call */\n" +
6676 " Convert request size to internal form by adding SIZE_SZ bytes\n" +
6880 " Search for a chunk by scanning bins, starting with next largest\n" +
6881 " bin. This search is strictly by best-fit; i.e., the smallest\n" +
6974 " exhuasted by current request, it is replenished. (The main\n" +
7511 " char* m; /* memory returned by malloc call */\n" +
8131 " args. You can suppress all such calls from even occurring by defining\n" +
8162 " in, present and won't get swapped out). You can use it by\n" +
8232 " Donated by J. Walter <Walter@GeNeSys-e.de>.\n" +
