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926 "???????????? ???? ?? ???? ??? ????? ?? ??? ??? - ??????? ????????, or Council of States,?? ???????? ??????. ???????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ???????? ?? ??????? ?? ?????, ?????????? ???? ?? ? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ??, ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ????????? ???? ??, ? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ????\n" +
1051 " Editing of this article by unregistered or newly registered users is currently disabled.\n" +
1052 "If you cannot edit this article and you wish to make a change, you can discuss changes on the talk page, request unprotection, log in, or create an account.\n" +
1060 "Total: 1 or 2 [11]\n" +
1122 "English is an Anglo-Frisian language. Germanic-speaking peoples from northwest Germany (Saxons and Angles) and Jutland (Jutes) invaded what is now known as Eastern England around the fifth century AD. It is a matter of debate whether the Old English language spread by displacement of the original population, or the native Celts gradually adopted the language and culture of a new ruling class, or a combination of both of these processes (see Sub-Roman Britain).\n" +
1136 "Many French words are also intelligible to an English speaker (though pronunciations are often quite different) because English absorbed a large vocabulary from Norman and French, via Anglo-Norman after the Norman Conquest and directly from French in subsequent centuries. As a result, a large portion of English vocabulary is derived from French, with some minor spelling differences (word endings, use of old French spellings, etc.), as well as occasional divergences in meaning, in so-called \"faux amis\", or false friends.\n" +
1142 "Over 380 million people speak English as their first language. English today is probably the third largest language by number of native speakers, after Mandarin Chinese and Spanish.[9][10] However, when combining native and non-native speakers it is probably the most commonly spoken language in the world, though possibly second to a combination of the Chinese Languages, depending on whether or not distinctions in the latter are classified as \"languages\" or \"dialects.\"[11][12] Estimates that include second language speakers vary greatly from 470 million to over a billion depending on how literacy or mastery is defined.[13][14] There are some who claim that non-native speakers now outnumber native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1.[15]\n" +
1144 "The countries with the highest populations of native English speakers are, in descending order: United States (215 million),[16] United Kingdom (58 million),[17] Canada (17.7 million),[18] Australia (15 million),[19] Ireland (3.8 million),[17] South Africa (3.7 million),[20] and New Zealand (3.0-3.7 million).[21] Countries such as Jamaica and Nigeria also have millions of native speakers of dialect continuums ranging from an English-based creole to a more standard version of English. Of those nations where English is spoken as a second language, India has the most such speakers ('Indian English') and linguistics professor David Crystal claims that, combining native and non-native speakers, India now has more people who speak or understand English than any other country in the world.[22] Following India is the People's Republic of China.[23]\n" +
1159 or current dependent territories of the United Kingdom and the United States, such as in Hong Kong and Mauritius.\n" +
1161 "English is not an official language in either the United States or the United Kingdom.[25][26] Although the United States federal government has no official languages, English has been given official status by 30 of the 50 state governments.[27]\n" +
1181 "Scots developed ? largely independently ? from the same origins, but following the Acts of Union 1707 a process of language attrition began, whereby successive generations adopted more and more features from English causing dialectalisation. Whether it is now a separate language or a dialect of English better described as Scottish English is in dispute. The pronunciation, grammar and lexis of the traditional forms differ, sometimes substantially, from other varieties of English.\n" +
1183 "Because of the wide use of English as a second language, English speakers have many different accents, which often signal the speaker's native dialect or language. For the more distinctive characteristics of regional accents, see Regional accents of English speakers, and for the more distinctive characteristics of regional dialects, see List of dialects of the English language.\n" +
1197 "Euro-English (also EuroEnglish or Euro-English) terms are English translations of European concepts that are not native to English-speaking countries. Due to the United Kingdom's (and even the Republic of Ireland's) involvement in the European Union, the usage focuses on non-British concepts. This kind of Euro-English was parodied when English was \"made\" one of the constituent languages of Europanto.\n" +
1241 " 1. American English lacks this sound; words with this sound are pronounced with /?/ or /?/.\n" +
1245 " 5. This sound is often transcribed with /i/ or with /?/.\n" +
1247 " 7. The letter <U> can represent either /u/ or the iotated vowel /ju/. In BRP, if this iotated vowel /ju/ occurs after /t/, /d/, /s/ or /z/, it often triggers palatalization of the preceding consonant, turning it to /?/, /?/, /?/ and /?/ respectively, as in tune, during, sugar, and azure. In American English, palatalization does not generally happen unless the /ju/ is followed by r, with the result that /(t, d,s, z)jur/ turn to /t??/, /d??/, /??/ and /??/ respectively, as in nature, verdure, sure, and treasure.\n" +
1273 " 2. The alveolar flap [?] is an allophone of /t/ and /d/ in unstressed syllables in North American English and Australian English.[30] This is the sound of tt or dd in the words latter and ladder, which are homophones for many speakers of North American English. In some accents such as Scottish English and Indian English it replaces /?/. This is the same sound represented by single r in most varieties of Spanish.\n" +
1277 " 6. The voiceless velar fricative /x/ is used only by Scottish or Welsh speakers of English for Scots/Gaelic words such as loch /l?x/ or by some speakers for loanwords from German and Hebrew like Bach /bax/ or Chanukah /xanuka/. In some dialects such as Scouse (Liverpool) either [x] or the affricate [kx] may be used as an allophone of /k/ in words such as docker [d?kx?]. Most native speakers have a great deal of trouble pronouncing it correctly when learning a foreign language. Most speakers use the sounds [k] and [h] instead.\n" +
1284 " * Voiceless plosives and affricates (/ p/, / t/, / k/, and / t?/) are aspirated when they are word-initial or begin a stressed syllable ? compare pin [p??n] and spin [sp?n], crap [k???æp] and scrap [sk?æp].\n" +
1288 " * Word-terminal voiceless plosives may be unreleased or accompanied by a glottal stop in some dialects (e.g. many varieties of American English) ? examples: tap [t?æp?], sack [sæk?].\n" +
1295 "English is an intonation language. This means that the pitch of the voice is used syntactically, for example, to convey surprise and irony, or to change a statement into a question.\n" +
1297 "In English, intonation patterns are on groups of words, which are called tone groups, tone units, intonation groups or sense groups. Tone groups are said on a single breath and, as a consequence, are of limited length, more often being on average five words long or lasting roughly two seconds. For example:\n" +
1301 " - /a? d??nt n??/ I don't know (contracted to, for example, - /a? d??n??/ or /a? d?n??/ I dunno in fast or colloquial speech that de-emphasises the pause between don't and know even further)\n" +
1305 "English is a strongly stressed language, in that certain syllables, both within words and within phrases, get a relative prominence/loudness during pronunciation while the others do not. The former kind of syllables are said to be accentuated/stressed and the latter are unaccentuated/unstressed. All good dictionaries of English mark the accentuated syllable(s) by either placing an apostrophe-like ( ? ) sign either before (as in IPA, Oxford English Dictionary, or Merriam-Webster dictionaries) or after (as in many other dictionaries) the syllable where the stress accent falls. In general, for a two-syllable word in English, it can be broadly said that if it is a noun or
1307 "Hence in a sentence, each tone group can be subdivided into syllables, which can either be stressed (strong) or unstressed (weak). The stressed syllable is called the nuclear syllable. For example:\n" +
1316 " John hadn't stolen that money. (... You said he had. or ... Not at that time, but later he did.)\n" +
1324 " I didn't tell her that. (... You said I did. or ... But now I will!)\n" +
1334 "The nuclear syllable is spoken more loudly than the others and has a characteristic change of pitch. The changes of pitch most commonly encountered in English are the rising pitch and the falling pitch, although the fall-rising pitch and/or the rise-falling pitch are sometimes used. In this opposition between falling and rising pitch, which plays a larger role in English than in most other languages, falling pitch conveys certainty and rising pitch uncertainty. This can have a crucial impact on meaning, specifically in relation to polarity, the positive?negative opposition; thus, falling pitch means \"polarity known\", while rising pitch means \"polarity unknown\". This underlies the rising pitch of yes/no questions. For example:\n" +
1337 " Now? (Rising pitch. In this case, it denotes a question: \"Can I be paid now?\" or \"Do you desire to be paid now?\")\n" +
1344 "English grammar has minimal inflection compared with most other Indo-European languages. For example, Modern English, unlike Modern German or Dutch and the Romance languages, lacks grammatical gender and adjectival agreement. Case marking has almost disappeared from the language and mainly survives in pronouns. The patterning of strong (e.g. speak/spoke/spoken) versus weak verbs inherited from its Germanic origins has declined in importance in modern English, and the remnants of inflection (such as plural marking) have become more regular.\n" +
1352 "Germanic words (generally words of Old English or to a lesser extent Norse origin) which include all the basics such as pronouns (I, my, you, it) and conjunctions (and, or, but) tend to be shorter than the Latinate words of English, and more common in ordinary speech. The longer Latinate words are often regarded as more elegant or educated. However, the excessive or superfluous use of Latinate words is considered at times to be either pretentious (as in the stereotypical policeman's talk of \"apprehending the suspect\") or an attempt to obfuscate an issue. George Orwell's essay \"Politics and the English Language\" is critical of this, as well as other perceived abuses of the language.\n" +
1354 "An English speaker is in many cases able to choose between Germanic and Latinate synonyms: come or arrive; sight or vision; freedom or liberty. In some cases there is a choice between a Germanic derived word (oversee), a Latin derived word (supervise), and a French word derived from the same Latin word (survey). The richness of the language arises from the variety of different meanings and nuances such synonyms harbour, enabling the speaker to express fine variations or shades of thought. Familiarity with the etymology of groups of synonyms can give English speakers greater control over their linguistic register. See: List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents.\n" +
1356 "An exception to this and a peculiarity perhaps unique to English is that the nouns for meats are commonly different from, and unrelated to, those for the animals from which they are produced, the animal commonly having a Germanic name and the meat having a French-derived one. Examples include: deer and venison; cow and beef; swine/pig and pork, or sheep and mutton. This is assumed to be a result of the aftermath of the Norman invasion, where a French-speaking elite were the consumers of the meat, produced by English-speaking lower classes.\n" +
1358 "In everyday speech, the majority of words will normally be Germanic. If a speaker wishes to make a forceful point in an argument in a very blunt way, Germanic words will usually be chosen. A majority of Latinate words (or at least a majority of content words) will normally be used in more formal speech and writing, such as a courtroom or an encyclopedia article. However, there are other Latinate words that are used normally in everyday speech and do not sound formal; these are mainly words for concepts that no longer have Germanic words, and are generally assimilated better and in many cases do not appear Latinate. For instance, the words mountain, valley, river, aunt, uncle, move, use, push and stay are all Latinate.\n" +
1368 "The vocabulary of English is undoubtedly vast, but assigning a specific number to its size is more a matter of definition than of calculation. Unlike other languages, there is no Academy to define officially accepted words. Neologisms are coined regularly in medicine, science and technology and other fields, and new slang is constantly developed. Some of these new words enter wide usage; others remain restricted to small circles. Foreign words used in immigrant communities often make their way into wider English usage. Archaic, dialectal, and regional words might or might not be widely considered as \"English\".\n" +
1372 " It embraces not only the standard language of literature and conversation, whether current at the moment, or obsolete, or archaic, but also the main technical vocabulary, and a large measure of dialectal usage and slang (Supplement to the OED, 1933).[32]\n" +
1382 "One of the consequences of the French influence is that the vocabulary of English is, to a certain extent, divided between those words which are Germanic (mostly Old English) and those which are \"Latinate\" (Latin-derived, either directly from Norman French or other Romance languages).\n" +
1411 "Words describing the navy, types of ships, and other objects or activities on the water are often from Dutch origin. Yacht (Jacht) and cruiser (kruiser) are examples.\n" +
1417 "There are many words of French origin in English, such as competition, art, table, publicity, police, role, routine, machine, force, and many others that have been and are being anglicised; they are now pronounced according to English rules of phonology, rather than French. A large portion of English vocabulary is of French or Oïl language origin, most derived from, or transmitted via, the Anglo-Norman spoken by the upper classes in England for several hundred years after the Norman Conquest.\n";
3198 " redistribute this code without permission or acknowledgement in any\n" +
3229 " This is not the fastest, most space-conserving, most portable, or\n" +
3251 " customize settings or to avoid overheads associated with library\n" +
3277 " Supported pointer representation: 4 or 8 bytes\n" +
3278 " Supported size_t representation: 4 or 8 bytes\n" +
3287 " Minimum overhead per allocated chunk: 4 or 8 bytes\n" +
3294 " When a chunk is freed, 12 (for 4byte ptrs) or 20 (for 8 byte\n" +
3295 " ptrs but 4 byte size) or 24 (for 8/8) additional bytes are\n" +
3304 " allocated than were requested in malloc) is less than or equal\n" +
3308 " minimal mmap unit); typically 4096 or 8192 bytes.\n" +
3315 " that `size_t' may be defined on a system as either a signed or\n" +
3333 " surround every public call with either a pthread mutex or\n" +
3344 " direct calls to MORECORE or other system-level allocators.\n" +
3377 " malloc_getpagesize derived from system #includes, or 4096 if not\n" +
3418 " probably don't want to touch unless you are extending or adapting malloc.\n" +
3471 "/* Win32 doesn't supply or need the following headers */\n" +
3513 " compiler, or a C compiler sufficiently close to ANSI to get away\n" +
3574 " noticeably. Calling malloc_stats or mallinfo with DEBUG set will\n" +
3586 " or other mallocs available that do this.\n" +
3627 " - INTERNAL_SIZE_T might be signed or unsigned, might be 32 or 64 bits,\n" +
3628 " and might be the same width as int or as long\n" +
3630 " - int and long might be 32 or 64 bits, and might be the same width\n" +
3840 " exhausted or because of illegal arguments.\n" +
3925 " or so) may be slower than you'd like.\n" +
4109 " Returns a pointer to a newly allocated chunk of at least n bytes, or null\n" +
4114 " size is 16 bytes on most 32bit systems, and 24 or 32 bytes on 64bit\n" +
4130 " allocated using malloc or a related routine such as realloc.\n" +
4158 " as does chunk p up to the minimum of (n, p's size) bytes, or null\n" +
4161 " The returned pointer may or may not be the same as p. The algorithm\n" +
4196 " bother calling memalign with an argument of 8 or less.\n" +
4237 " M_MMAP_THRESHOLD -3 256*1024 any (or 0 if no MMAP support)\n" +
4254 " have been freed but not use resused or consolidated)\n" +
4260 " uordblks: current total allocated space (normal or mmapped)\n" +
4284 " allocated (this is not guaranteed to occur with multiple callocs or\n" +
4295 " In either case, independent_calloc returns this pointer array, or\n" +
4324 " free(pool); // Can now free the array (or not, if it is needed later)\n" +
4342 " multiple callocs or mallocs), which may also improve cache locality\n" +
4351 " In either case, independent_comalloc returns this pointer array, or\n" +
4367 " where several structs or objects must always be allocated at the\n" +
4440 " structures will be left (one page or less). Non-zero arguments\n" +
4480 " current if malloc_trim and/or munmap got called), and the current\n" +
4481 " number of bytes allocated via malloc (or realloc, etc) but not yet\n" +
4513 " than or equal to the default. The maximum supported value of MXFAST\n" +
4515 " are designed especially for use with many small structs, objects or\n" +
4517 " to 16 4byte fields, or small strings representing words, tokens,\n" +
4587 " freeing a chunk with size less than or equal to MXFAST. Trimming is\n" +
4607 " M_TOP_PAD is the amount of extra `padding' space to allocate or\n" +
4622 " that nearly every malloc request during program start-up (or\n" +
5138 " described in e.g., Knuth or Standish. (See the paper by Paul\n" +
5143 " size fields also hold bits representing whether chunks are free or\n" +
5195 " preventing access to non-existent (or non-owned) memory. If\n" +
5203 " to extend or adapt this code.\n" +
5272 "/* size field is or'ed with PREV_INUSE when previous adjacent chunk in use */\n" +
5279 "/* size field is or'ed with IS_MMAPPED if the chunk was obtained with mmap() */\n" +
5291 " people extending or adapting this malloc.\n" +
5368 " inuse chunks or the ends of memory.\n" +
5514 " and taken off (to be either used or placed in bins) in malloc.\n" +
5650 " or controlled properties of the morecore function\n" +
5729 " that in turn invoke malloc and/or free may call more then once.\n" +
5997 " chunk, or the base of its memory arena. This is ensured\n" +
6013 " If you are extending or experimenting with this malloc, you can\n" +
6014 or\n" +
6141 " be extended or replaced.\n" +
6154 " long size; /* arg to first MORECORE or mmap call */\n" +
6314 " If have mmap, try using it as a backup when MORECORE fails or\n" +
6369 " * If the first time through or noncontiguous, we need to call sbrk\n" +
6397 " malloc or by other threads. We cannot guarantee to detect\n" +
6494 " gap due to foreign sbrk or a non-contiguous region. Insert a\n" +
6677 " overhead plus possibly more to obtain necessary alignment and/or\n" +
6737 " Also, in practice, programs tend to have runs of either small or\n" +
6750 " Process recently freed or remaindered chunks, taking one only if\n" +
6751 " it is exact fit, or, if this a small request, the chunk is remainder from\n" +
6823 " size |= PREV_INUSE; /* Or with inuse bit to speed comparisons */\n" +
7412 " /* If possible, free extra space in old or extended chunk */\n" +
7744 " Void_t** marray; /* either \"chunks\" or malloced ptr array */\n" +
8114 " * MORECORE may allocate more memory than requested. (Or even less,\n" +
8157 " If you are using this malloc with something other than sbrk (or its\n" +
